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Rubin, R. E. (2016). Foundations of library and information science (4th ed.). Chicago, IL: Neal-Schuman.

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1. Creators
2. Products
3. Distributors
4. Disseminators
5. Users

1. Radio Industry
2. Television Industry
3. Telephone/Smartphone Industry
4. The Internet and Mobile Access
5. Print Publishing Industry
6. Digital Publishing Industry

1. Libraries
2. Schools and Academic Institutions
3. Nonformal Educational Units

“Libraries require at least three conditions: a centralized population, economic development, and political stability (Harris and Johnson 1984)

“Physical libraries do not proper in nomadic conditions; there must be a stable location for the materials. The Centralization of population in cities and towns was particularly important. However, even a small stable population such as a university or monastery can serve as a sufficient concentration to produce a library.”

The Earliest Mission: Maintaining a Records Archive

”…at least two significant factors provided impetus for their creation: the rise of commerce and the invention of writing.“

“The earliest written records date from 3000 BC and probably come from Sumeria or its environs in Mesopotamia.”

“Municipal and government libraries held business record as well as deeds, contracts, tax lists, and marriage records (Harris and Johnson 1984). References to small private libraries have been found as well, but little is known about them.”

“Evidence suggests that some of the temples and schools that taught specially qualified people how to make clay tablets, how to write cuneiform, and how to record Sumerian literature, mathematics, and accounting. These well-educated scribes or priests were known as “masters of the books” or “Keepers of the tablets.” These first 'librarians' attached tags or marked at least some of the tablets on their edges. Sometimes a large number of tablets might be stored in a box or lets on their edges. Sometimes a large of tablets might be stored in a box or a series of boxes and an additional table was prepared summarizing the contents - a “tablet of contents,” so to speak (Walker 1998).

“There is even evidence that there was a hierarchy among scribes with senior scribes serving as chief administrators of the tablet archives. Given the rarity of their skills, it is not surprising that these scribes were part of the elite of Sumerian society (Walker 1998).”

The Religious and Practical Missions of Egyptian Libraries

“As with Sumeria, Egyptian temples were cultural centers that served by as both historical archives and places for learning. Writing was considered a sacred activity. The temple priests trained professional scribes in a type of apprentice-master system to write a pictographic and phonographic language called hieroglyphics (Davis 1998).”

“The earliest Egyptian libraries probably emerged around 2400 BC. The library at Edfu, known as the “House of Papyrus,” had a collection of practical and spiritual materials that included writing on administration, magic, astronomy, astrology, and medicine (Thompson 1962; Shera 1976).”

“Egyptian libraries were particularly notable for their medical collections, which included pharmacological information as well as materials on diagnosis and treatment of disease and surgery (Harris and Johnson 1984).”

“In addition to the temple libraries, there were also extensive private collections among royalty and individual wealthy Egyptians. Perhaps the most notable royal library was that of Pharoah Rames II in Thebes between 1200 and 1300 BC. This library might have had a many as 20,000 scrolls (Nichols 1964).”

The Mission of Scholarship and Research

“The eighth century BC Assyrian King, Ashurbanipal, was a learned man with knowledge of languages, mathematic, and astronomy as well as military strategy (Starr 1991). He believed that a library should not only maintain archival records, but should also serve as a source of current reference materials and contribute to the education of future generations (Dunlap 1972).”

“Ashurbanipal directed scholars and assistants to collect clay tablets produced from other lands and the library soon had thousands of tables on a wide variety of subjects. The collection contained Sumerian and Babylonian literary texts, history, omens, astronomical calculations, mathematical tables, grammatical and linguistic tables, and dictionaries, as well as commercial records and laws. Many of these materials were translated from their original language into Assyrian. There is also evidence of a “keeper of the books,” as the collection was organized with the titles arranged by subject and listed in registers. Some of the tablets had markers to help in locating and shelving them but nothing else is known (Jackson 1974).”

“At its height, it was estimated to have as many as 50,000 clay tablets, two-thirds of which were collected during Ashurbanipal's reign (Dunalp 1972). Taken as a whole, the Royal Library of Nineveh was a remarkable achievement for several reasons:

• the collection was a concerted effort to acquire a vast amount of material on a variety of subjects
• the holdings were developed, at least in part, for future generations
• Many of the materials were translated to increase accessibility
• the materials were systematically organized, marked and arranged
• a 'librarian' played a significant role in the library's activities

”…suggest that the Royal Libary was the first attempt to build a library for reference and research.”

“Advancing the scholarly mission of libraries was also one of the notable contributions of the Greeks….In the fifth century BC, a transition to a written culture began. There is some evidence that even a century earlier, the then leader of Athens, Pisistratus, had collected many works and created the first “public” library.”

“Aristotle's library, in particular, was extensive. His student, Alexander the Great (356-323BC) played a major role in promoting libraries. Although he was not directly responsible for building libraries, by extending his empire he consequently extended the Greek values of reading and learning. Literacy, by Alexander's time, was more common compared to previous cultures and centuries - perhaps as high as 10 percent. While the wealthy could obtain a more complete education including the 'classics' such as Homer, geometry, and music, others learned a basic education of writing and reading (davies 1998; Starr 1991). In addition, Alexander might have been the first one to propose the idea of a great library in Alexandria, Egypt (Staikos 2004).”

“Ptolemy, considered a fine diplomat, had great respect for the written word and love for learning. He encouraged scholars and artists to immigrate to Alexandria, which in addition to a bustling port, became a center of culture, learning and critical studies of Greek and other literatures. In order to facilitate these studies, Ptolemy and his son Ptolemy Philadelphus (Ptolemy II), with the help and encouragement of Demetrios of Phaleron, founded the Alexandrian Museum and Library.”

“An entire annex of the Alexandrian library was created to make such copies (Staikos 2004).”

“The librarians organized, evaluated, classified, and maintained the materials in two buildings. A major research library called the Brucheion, was divided into ten great halls, each hall representing separate areas of learning subdivided with the smaller rooms for individuals involved in special studies (Parsons 1952). A smaller library, called the Serapeum, might have provided some service to students and the public (Harris and Johnson 1984).

“Callimachus is especially known for organizing the collections. His goal was to compile a comprehensive list of authors and their works that would serve as a library catalog (Staikos 2004). His subject catalog of the library holdings, called the Pinakes, contained 120 scrolls arranged into ten subject classes. Within each class, there were subdivisions listing authors alphabetically with titles. Because some entries included historical or critical remarks, some historians regard the Pinakes as more than a catalog, suggesting that it might have also served as a history of Greek literature (Jackson 1974).

“The Alexandrian became a self-contained community of scholars that attracted other notable scholars including Euclid, Archimedes, and Galen. Many of the researchers were provided with grants and other privileges including food, lodging, and servants so that they could pursue their academic activities undisturbed (Battles 2003; Staikos 2004). Common to academic institutions even today, this was a source of much jealousy and criticism by those who were not part of the privileged community. Interestingly, Staikos (p. 167) refers to the community of scholars as a “gilded prison” because the scholars were given great freedom inside the library, but were pretty much confined to it. Arrest and imprisonment might await any attempt to leave!”

“In fact, the Alexandrian represented a cultural core for Greek influence on the known world. As Battles (2003) noted: 'By bringing scholars to Alexandria and inviting them to live and work, at royal expense, among an enormous store of books, the Ptolemies made the library into a think tank under the control of the royal house. The strategic implications of a monopoly on knowledge – especially in medicine, engineering, and theology, all among Alexandria's strengths–were not lost on the Ptolemies (p. 29).'”

The Missions of Personal Status and Public Use

“By the first century BC there were many libraries in Rome. Some were associated with temples, others could be found in public bath which and alcoves in which to store scrolls. Many were in the private homes of wealthy Romans. Aristotle's library, for example, was brought to Rome in the first century BC by the Roman general Sulla (Thompson 1962). Cicero had a library in each of his seven villas (Staikos, 2005). Lucullus opened his libraries to others who lacked the means to have their own collections and it was not uncommon for fellow aristocrats of similar literary interests to loan materials from their private libraries to each other (Dix 1994). Julius Caesar's imperial library contained major works in Greek and Laton along with busts of their authors (Barker 2001). Many of the library collections in Rome were known as 'double libraries' that is they contained Greek materials separate from the Latin collection (Staikos 2005, p. 7). This suggests that although the Greek culture was much revered, it was distinct from Rome's.”

“The Emperor Augustus built two additional public libraries in Rome and by the fourth century AD there were as many as twenty-nine public libraries in the city, often associated with Roman temples (Boyd 1915).”

“The purpose of such recitations was either to obtain criticism from the listening audience, or to gain popularity and sales by entertaining fellow Romans. These public recitations evolved over time from small gatherings to much larger meetings which required larger rooms, which we now know as 'auditoriums' (Staikos 2005).”

“During most of the time of Roman domination, the Romans' recorded their history and accounts using papyrus scrolls, like the Greeks before them. The scrolls, called volumina (volume), could be as much as 20 to 30 feet in length. These were some obvious disadvantages to the scrolls; they were bulky and it was more difficult to find one's place because there were no pages.”

“During the first century AD, due to persecution and the need to record religious text quickly and in readily transportable form, the early Christians abandoned the scroll and replaced it with the parchment codex (book). The early Christians were the first to publish biblical manuscripts in codex form with bound pages and a wood covering (Boser 2006).

Preserving Scholarship: The Byzantine and Muslim Libraries “The center of the Byzantine Empire as Constantinople, where Constantine's son, Emperor Constantius, strove to make the city the intellectual capital of the Empire. To accomplish this, he founded the Imperial Library in 353 AD (Jackson 1974). It appears the library operated much like a university library although it was open to the public….Many works this discovered were on papyrus and in serious disrepair. As a consequence, the library contained not only a large collection, but a staff of individuals and a conservation area. Here, scrolls were repaired or copied onto new parchment codices (Staikos 2005).”

“Arab rulers built great libraries that became a critical force in fostering the translation of many materials especially classical Greek works by Aristotle, Archimedes, and Euclid. The proliferation of libraries through the Muslim world was impressive: Spain had seventy libraries, Baghdad thirty-six, and “every important city in Persia had its library” (Thompson 1962, p. 353).”

“The earliest major library was the Royal Library in Damascus, which contained materials from throughout the world on a wide variety of topics, including medicine, philosophy, history, and literature (Harris and Johnson 1984).”

“The most notable library in Bagdad at this time was the “House of Wisdom.” The “House of Wisdom” was a university library like the Alexandrian, and scholars traveled to it translation important works and studying mathematics, astronomy, and geometry. In addition, research and learning were furthered by large university libraries in Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba.

The Religious Mission: Monastic Libraries of the Middle Ages

The mission of the monastic library was threefold: to provide a place for spiritual reflection, to archive religious texts, and to reproduce religious and sometimes secular texts.”

“Other rules involved the copying of books in a special room called the scriptorium. ”

“Both literacy and publishing benefited: The scriptoria became the publishing houses of the middle ages; and a large percentage of the literate individuals in Western Europe were educated in these monastic schools (Cantor 2003).”

“One other debt is due the monks, the Dominicans in particular. The Dominican friars created written guidelines related to locating the best site for a library, providing adequate shelving, organizing the library by subjects, marking the spines of the books with their titles, replenishing and weeding the collection, establishing hours of operation, and selling duplicate titles (Clanchy 1979).”

The Educational Mission: Cathedral and University Libraries of the Late Middle Ages

The cathedral libraries were large than those in monasteries and were less dominated by religious works (Shera 1976). In fact, the mission of cathedral libraries, unlike the monastic libraries, was to support the educational program of the cathedral and encourage study.”

“Initially, these universities did not have libraries; rather students bought their books from booksellers. The University of Paris established the first university library in the mid-thirteenth century; and Oxford and Cambridge soon followed, among others (Shera 1976). These libraries were often small, well under 1,000 items, but their mission to support and expand the educational mission of the university served as a bridge from the domination of the medieval church to the birth of the Renaissance (Harris and Johnson 1984; Shera 1976).”

The Humanistic Mission and the Reemergence of the Library for Personal Status

“It was also a time of great private libraries developed by leading literary figures such as Petrarch and Boccaccio, who themselves were sponsored by popes or Renaissance princes such as the dukes of Urbino and the Medici. These sponsors were passionate book collectors as both a matter of personal vanity and genuine interest in secular learning. They sent agents through Western Europe to located manuscripts in deteriorating monastic libraries. Sometimes the manuscripts were copied but often enthusiastic agents confiscated (or saved) these items for their sponsors.”

Promoting National Pride: The Mission of the National Libraries

“The growth of secular monarchies and nationalism is consistent with the emergence of a new type of library–the national library. Early examples of such libraries arose in the seventeenth century in England, France, Germany, Denmark, and Scotland.”

“What distinguished these libraries was not simply their large collections, but rather the special mission to preserved the cultural heritage of their countries. This meant developing a comprehensive collection of materials by and about the country, including books, manuscripts, documents, and other records.”

“To meet this mission, a unique collection development technique arose: the creation of a depository right. That is, some nations passed laws requiring that at least one copy of each item published with the country be sent to the national library. This was accomplished, for example, in England in 1610, when an agreement was made between the Stationers' Company (which licensed publications in England) and the Bodleian Library of Oxford University. This agreement stipulated that one copy of each book published would be given to the Bodleian in return for limited borrowing privileges (Jackson 1974). In essence, this meant that all items or nearly all items, published would become part of the national collection. In the United States, this depository right is held by the Library of Congress and although not officially our national library, it is a very close approximation.”

“If one can identify a single historical development that profoundly affected all libraries, it would be the revolutionary invention of the printing press in 1454 in Mainz, Germany, which affected much more than libraries.”

“The printing press made books available to the masses for the first time and thus increased a desire for learning.”

“The impact of the printing press on society was profound and rapid. By 1500, there may have been as many as 1000 printer's workshops employing 10-20,000 people; in addition, it is likely that more than 15-20 million books had been printed (Man 2002)!”

“But there were other significant impacts as well. The printing press led to mass production of maps and navigational tables dramatically improving sea navigation and exploration, mass-produced mathematical and astronomical tables significantly enhanced scientific discoveries and their dissemination, religious knowledge found new expression through the written world rather than just through images, and the early printers' workshops became the centers for scholars, scientific thinkers, and other learned individuals (Eisenstein 1979).”

“The seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were formative periods for American libraries.”

“There were also a few modest college libraries. Harvard University, founded in 1636, hired its first librarian in 1667 and by the mid-eighteenth century possessed a small library of approximately 5,000 volumes. Yale University, founded in 1700, held around 2,500 volumes by 1750 (Harris and Johnson 1984).”

“By 1792, only nine colonial colleges had libraries. The size of the typical college collection was small for several reasons: the low number of book titles produced in the United States, lack of fiscal resources, and lack of recognition of the library's role in academic life.”

”…Thomas Bray, created the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, which advocated for establishing libraries devoted solely to religious purposes (McMullen 2000). Numerous parish libraries were established throughout England, and his teachings soon spread to America. By the early 1700s, seventy parish libraries were established, many in the south Atlantic region (Harris and Johnson 1984).”

“By 1876, there were more than 10,000 libraries of over eighty different types (McMullen 2000). Their variety was impressive: agricultural libraries, antiquarian society libraries, art society libraries, church libraries, county libraries, government libraries, historical society libraries, hotel reading rooms, ladies' libraries, law libraries, mechanics' libraries, medical libraries, prison libraries, public libraries, railroad libraries, salon reading rooms, scientific and engineering libraries, sewing circle libraries, state libraries, university libraries, and YMCA libraries.”

The Mission of Self-Improvement: The Social Libraries of the Eighteenth Century

“The social library emerged during the first half of the eighteenth century. According to Shera (1965), 'the social library was nothing more than a voluntary association of individuals who had contributed money toward a common fund to be used for the purchase of books' (p.57).”

“There were two types of social libraries: proprietary libraries and subscription (association) libraries. Proprietary libraries operated on the principle that those who contributed money for the library actually owned the material purchased; in essence, they were stockholders. In subscription libraries, individuals paid a fee to use and circulate the collection, but they did not own the items (Shera 1965). Some social libraries were hybrids of the two models, with some members owning shares while others participated by annual subscription. Most social libraries has fewer than 50 members and consequently, the collections were often quite small, often less than 300 books.”

“The mission of the social library was to assist individuals' self-improvement and the search for truth. Many of the members had a genuine love of literature and believed that the sharing of books and information led to character improvement. They also believed that the members gained knowledge by discussing the ideas they found in books and newspapers.”

“One of the earliest proponents of this mission was Benjamin Franklin, who is credit with establishing the first social library, called the Junto, in Philidelphia in 1728. The Junto was short lived, but he soon founded a second library, which he called a subscription library, 1731. It survives today the Philadelphia Library Company.”

“The social library became quite popular throughout New England in the latter half of the eighteenth century and well into the nineteenth, with its apex between 1825 and 1835.”

“Another important aspect of these social libraries was that although they required individuals to pay money, as institutions they had a distinctly public character. The majority was created for the general citizenry; anymore who could afford the modest fee could partake of the collection. Because there were few places other than work or home where one could occupy one's time productively, social libraries became a third place. There an individual could spend time conversing with friends, developing a sense of community, and reading newspapers or books (Arenson 2006).”

“Social libraries were, in fact, an important and necessary stage for the eventual creation of tax-supported public libraries (Valentine 2011). The idea that libraries were a place to go for self-improvement became ingrained in the American psyche, and subsequently when social libraries foundered, many of these collections formed the core of new public library collections.”

The Mission of Providing Entertainment: The Circulating Library

“While the social library was attempting to meet the need for self-improvment, the mission of the circulating library (sometimes called a rental library) was to satisfy public demand for fiction and popular materials intended for entertainment rather than education. Circulating libraries were well established in England and first appeared in American in the 1760s. Although there were some selections from literature, history, and theology, the majority of the collection was fiction. The popular novels of the time consisted mostly of romances (much like today), which were fairly well established in America by 1790.”

“As many as 350 foreign titles might have been published in America from 1789 to 1800, compared to thirty-five titles by American authors (Shera 1965).”

“The distinguishing feature of the circulating libraries was their profit-making character, Usually associated with a printer or bookstore, the books were rented of individuals were charged a membership fee that allowed them to borrow a designated number of books over specified period of time. Serving mass taste appears to have been as profitable in colonial times as it is today; many of these libraries prospered and spread throughout New England.”

“The circulating library also made several contributions to contemporary public library philosophy and service. For example, despite its profit motive, its mission to appeal to popular taste has echoes in contemporary public library service. In addition, Kaser (1980) noted, circulating libraries were the first to provide (1) service to women, (2) newspapers and magazines, (3) extended hours of service, (4) reading areas in the library itself, and (5) outreach services, including home delivery of books. These are substantive contributions. The circulating library's survival, however, was ultimately threatened by its low status and competition from tax-supported public libraries (Kaser 1980).

The Mission of Providing Information: The Rise of Special Libraries

“The purpose of the commercial library was to promote the profitability of the company. The librarian's job was to provide reference service to the organization rather than build a collection per se. This remains a fundamental characteristic of special libraries to this day. These libraries collected only materials that focused on the direct needs of the enterprise, many of which, such as technical records, industrial and market reports, proprietary documents, and business conference papers, were unfamiliar to many public librarians.”

“The unique concerns of these types of libraries lead to the creation of the Special Libraries Association in 1909. Special libraries also fostered new technologies such as microfilm, which became available in the 1920s. Most significantly, the mission of special libraries to provide specific information rather than books or other materials was an important factor in the rise of information science and the exploitation of information technologies in libraries.”

The Mission to Support Teaching and Research: The American Academic Library

“However, three significant events in the mid-nineteenth century substantially changed academic institutions and shifted the role of the academic libraries: changes in the academic curriculum, the rise of the research model, and the passage of the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862.”

Changes in the Curriculum

“The evolution of the academic curriculum and its implication for librarianship were recognized early by Melvil Dewey (1978): 'The colleges are waking to the fact that the work of every professor and every department is necessarily based on the library; text books constantly yield their exalted places to wiser and broader methods; professor after professor sends his classes, or goes with them, to the library and teaches them to investigate for themselves, and to use books, getting beyond the method of the primary school with its parrot-like recitations from a single text. (p. 136)”

The Rise of the Research Model

“At the turn of the eighteenth century at the University of Berlin in Germany, a new model of the modern university emerged. This model envisioned faculty members as independent researchers. Objective scholarship was promoted, and an expansive faculty research agenda was encouraged (Chiflett 1994). Given the obvious need for published resources for research, the academic library played an increasingly critical role.” ”…it was not until 1876 that this model was explicitly adopted with the founding of John Hopkins University. John Hopkins placed research as a central function of the university. The seminar model of teaching was emphasized and students were encouraged to consult a wide variety of published sources.”

“The need for a library with current and deep collections was essential to fulfill this function, and the result was on increase substantially the importance and centrality of the academic library. Although the mission of the academic libraries continues to evolve, the need to support the academic curriculum and provide research support for faculty remains the academic library's primary function.”

The Passage of the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862 “This led to the passage of the Morrill Land Grant Act in 1862, which allocated 30,000 acres of public land to establish state universities promoting agriculture and the mechanical arts.”

Supporting Primary and Secondary Education: The Mission of the School Library

“In 1852 Massachusetts passed the first compulsory school attendance laws. By 1890, half of the states had such laws. At the same time, more and more schools, including secondary schools with libraries, were being built.”

“The earliest attempt to support public school libraries occurred in New York in 1835 when the state legislature passed a law that permitted school districts to apply some of their tax receipts to create and maintain school libraries. By 1875, twenty states had passed similar legislation (Knight and Nourse 1969). In 1892, New York again passed legislation that provided matching funds to purchase library books for school districts as long as the books were first approved by the Department of Public Instruction. Approved materials consisted of 'reference books, supplementary reading books, books related to the curriculum, and pedagogical books for use by teachers' (Gillespie and Spirt 1983, p. 3).”

“Several groups were concerned with the development of school libraries, including the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE), the National Education Association (NEA), and the American Library Association (ALA). In 1914 the NCTE formed a standing committee on school libraries and the ALA formed a School Library Section (Cecil and Heaps 1940). In 1915 the NCTE conducted a national survey, and the findings expressed serious concern about the adequacy of school libraries. This prompted the NEA and the ALA to appoint a joint committee headed by Charles Certain to study the conditions of school libraries and to develop standards. Certain's first report, published in 1920, focused on high schools; the second, in 1925, focused on elementary schools. both reports concluded that school libraries were seriously deficient.”

John Dewey and new teaching methods.

The Mission of Serving the Public: The American Public Library

“The term public library refers generically to libraries supported by public funds. Using this broad definition, by 1876 there were approximately 3,600 public libraries in the United States. Most of these, however, were associated with academic institutions, public schools, or social libraries. As we apply the term today, there were actually very few public libraries. By 1880 only seven of the sixteen largest cities in the United States had municipally supported libraries.”

“Some have suggested that the honor belongs to Peterbourgh, New Hampshire, because in 1834 'there for the first time an institution was founded by a town with the deliberate purpose of creating a free library that would be open without restriction to all classes of the community - a library supported from the beginning by public funds (Shera 1965, p. 169).”

Figure 2.1

“In March 1848, the Massachusetts legislature authorized the city of Boston to provide municipal support for a public library. The Boston Public Library founded in 1854, received credit for being the first major public library.”

The Founding of the Boston Public Library “The concept of a public library for Boston was first advanced more than a decade before its founding by a noted French actor and ventriloquist, Nicholas Marie Alexandre Vattemare. Vattemare was a highly successful and wealthy entertainer who also loved books and collected art. He abandoned his theatrical career and became a global philanthropist with a special interest in development an international, reciprocal exchange of duplicate copies of books traded among major cultural institutions.”

“In the 1840s he proposed that several of the major private libraries in Boston combine into one public institution to facilitate this exchange.”

Charles Ticknor | Edward Everett

“The efforts of Ticknor, Everett, and other finally convinced the Boston city fathers to appoint a Joint Standing Committee on the Library, which in turn recommended the appointment of a board of trustees. The Boston Public Library opened in the spring of 1854. Its mission was to serve the education convictions of Everett and the popular needs espoused by Ticknor.”

“The creation of the BPL is generally viewed as the result of two major factors: first, it was a natural outgrowth of urban developments in the mid-nineteenth century; and second, it was the result of prevailing social attitudes held by a small group of individuals who concluded, for a variety of reasons, that a public library was need for the citizens of Boston.”

Noblesse oblige | American Philanthropy | Andrew Carnegie Gospel of Wealth

“The growth of libraries and librarianship during the nineteenth century was deeply rooted in these beliefs (Nielson 1989).”

“Clearly, it shares an education mission with American public schools. In 1876, Melvil Dewey stated that popular education was actually divided into two parts: 'the free school and the free public library' (Dewey 1978, p.5). He thought of the library as a school and of the librarian as a teacher. But in what way was the mission of the public library distinct from the public schools?”

“First, the public library could satisfy the interest in reading and learning for all ages, not just for those who were in school;”

“Second, it was a means to self-improvement in age when self-education was still a vital means for improving one's changes in society;”

“Third, it was intended to produce more thoughtful people, individuals capable of making balanced and well-reasoned judgments in a democratic society that depended on their judgments at the voiding booth. Such citizens would serve as a strong and stabilizing force to the democratic society.”

“Finally, libraries were perceived as 'cultural agencies'.” Indeed, librarians of the latter half of the nineteenth century saw themselves as agents of social improvement.“

Michael Harris (1973) Revisionist interpretation Social control Challenged by Dain (1975)

The Historical Struggle over Popular Materials

“From the beginning, the public library was challenged by the mission of satisfying popular tastes. Their holdings of popular novels, newspapers, and magazines were of concern to some because these materials tended to attract a clientele who were more inclined to lounge than to read - the “loafers and bummers” (McCrossen 2006). Newspaper and magazines were particularly troublesome because they potentially diverted the attention of readers away from books. Nonetheless, from the beginning, Charles Ticknor advocated that popular materials should be part of the BPL's collection for the entertainment of readers. Interestingly, the library put its newspapers and light fiction in its lower hall, with more serious reading placed in its upper hall (McCrossen 2006). The pattern of separating reading rooms in this manner still exists today. It also remains a concern that reading rooms are sometimes the source of lounging, rather than reading.”

“Popular fiction has a long tradition of raising concerns about lowering morals. Wiegand (1989) called this the 'ideology of reading' (p.100), the idea that there was good reading and bad reading; the former led to good conduct, the latter to unacceptable behaviors.”

“Free Fiction” The Nation 1866.

'Read at an age when the taste is unformed, when the passions are just developing, when the will is feeble, principles are unfixed, and resistance to temptation is difficult, if they do not utterly spoil the inquisitive minds which are attracted by their glittering mediocrity, it will be because nature is stronger than education, and original vigor more than a match for enfeebling moral influences. (p.139).'

Andrew Carnegie

“From 1886 to 1919 Carnegie donated $56 million to construct more than 2,000 library building, many of them public libraries, in more than 1,400 communities, large and small.”

“The libraries built with Carnegie' largesse were their libraries, not his, and their shelves were stocked with materials of local interest, not his.”

“In fact, the specifically local character of today's public library collections and services might be a direct result of the special conditions and restrictions that Carnegie required with every donation.”

“First, the money was for building construction only, not for the purchase and maintenance of library materials or for staff. This, in essence, guaranteed the local character of library collections.”

“Second, all recipients had to contribute an annual sum equal to 10 percent of the money donated to build collections and hire staff. This created a tradition of shared government support of public libraries and defined local governance. The town, through its appointed board, was in control, not Carnegie. The inevitable result was that the appointed board, was in control, not Carnegie. The inevitable result was that the Carnegie public library was shaped by local interest: library collections reflected the local community and popular taste. Thus, one of the fundamental missions of public libraries, to meet the needs of the local community, was promoted by the Carnegie model of local taxation and local government control. Indeed, Carnegie might well have done more to establish this model than the BPL.”

The Role of Women's Clubs

“Such clubs became commonplace following the Civil War when it became more acceptable for women to seek an education, especially self-education. Some of these clubs were local, while others were affiliated nationally with the General Federation of Women's Clubs.”

“Watson (1994) suggested that women's club contributed in significant ways to the development of more than 470 public libraries between 1870 and 1930. Similarly, in the same period, a large majority of public libraries in Kansas, Oklahoma, Virginia, Florida, and North Dakota were founded by them (Kevane and Sundstrom 2014).”

“Although the exact percentage of public libraries established through the efforts of women's clubs in the early part of the twentieth century is unclear, Watson estimates that it might have ranged between 50 percent and 75 percent of the total. In some instances the clubs provided support for additional materials and club members volunteered as librarians. Some women's clubs were influential at the state level, lobbying for library legislation and the need for state library commissions (Watson 1994).”

“Their stated mission of self-education and improvement is firmly in line with the history and values of their ear, and the results were salutary.”

A Mission of Inclusiveness

“Amid this influx of polyglot peoples, there were legitimate concerns regarding education and socialization. The progressive philosophy of the times viewed the function of educational institutions, including libraries, as improving society and advancing the democratic tradition (Du Mont et al. 1994).”

“Many librarians took this responsibility quite seriously and numerous articles in professional periodicals offered advice on providing services and understanding the needs of immigrants. Some librarians exhibited an almost missionary zeal in their efforts to bring the benefits of reading to the general public.”

“Nonetheless, library collections and services include books and newspapers written in native languages; programs on US citizenship; classes in English; story hours in native languages; programs on American history and culture; supplementary materials to support school curricula; and help for immigrants in reading letters, sending messages to social service agencies, writing checks, and completing citizenship forms (Stern 1991; Du Mont et al. 1994). In 1917 ALA created a Committee on Work with the Foreign Born that collected and disseminated information on how to help educate immigrants about American values and the English language (Stern 1991). The committee produced numerous guides to assist in this process.”

Hispanic Needs

African-American | Literary societies |

“Pre-Civil War societies included the Philadephia Libary Company of Colored Persons, founded by Robert Purvis, and the Female Library Association of Philadelphia (Wheeler and Johnson-Houston 2004; McHenry 1998). McHenry (1998) observed, 'These societies offered a protected, collective environment in which to develop a literary background as well as the oral and written skills need to represent themselves with confidence' (p.157)”

“After the Civil War, although there was a concerted push for public schooling in the South, the development of public libraries for both blacks and whites lagged by about 50 years (Fultz 2006). What libraries there were provided severely restricted or no service to African-Americans (Truhillo and Cuesta 1989). By 1900, it is estimated that 90 percent of African-Americans in the South still could not read.

“In 1903, the LeMoyne Institute, a black normal school, provided space for a library and made the collection available to the citizens as well as the students. In 1904, Galveston, Texas, opened a brand of the Rosenberg Library for African-Americans as an addition to a local black high school. In 1905, two segregated reading rooms for blacks were established in the public libraries of Lexington, Kentucky, and Jacksonville, Florida.”

“By 1926, nationally there were perhaps forty-five public libraries providing segregated library services to African-Americans; by 1935 the number had increased to seventy-five (Du Mont et al. 1994).”

“The establishing of branches to serve African-Americans was usually funded by the philanthropy of whites, the Carnegie Corporation, or the activities of churches or civic organizations (both black and white) (Cresswell 1996; Wheeler and Johnson-Houston 2004).”

“Interestingly, the desegregation of public libraries came more quickly than that of the schools, and the process began piror to the 1960s. Fultz (2006) aruged that this might be because 'some southerners during this period held that racial interations in libraries were less threatening than the possibilities of social contact among children in schools or even, seemingly among strangers on buses' (p.348). He also noted that African-American library users were perceived as predominantly middle class and there more acceptable.”

Juliette Hampton Morgan Emily Wheelock Reed The Rabbit's Wedding.

ALA weak tea

Library Service and Construction Act of 1964

Higher Education Act for Colleges and Universities

Social Responsibilities Round Table (SRRT)

REFORMA

Black Caucus of ALA (BCALA)

NCAAL

“Information Place”

“Today, libraries are still a respected cultural institution and a powerful physical presence, but their monopoly on knowledge is gone.”

“In fact, it was a self-realization that the library is much more than information provision - it was a place in which many important things happened: informational, recreational, educational, cultural, and civic. It was a place where people met, learned, and exchanged ideas. It was a place where people got help to solve important health and other social problems. It was a place to create.”

@your library

Libraries Transforming Communities (LTC) initiative

”…change from being 'library-focused' to 'community-focused' ALA 2014a).”

“Libraries over the centuries have had many missions: archival, religious, scholarship and education, self-aggrandizement, and entertainment. In each case, the library was deeply embedded in the culture that created it. It began, grew, changed, and declined in consort with the culture that produced it. That is the library's nature, it does not exist in a vacuum and its vigor grows, ebbs, and flows its society.”

“Going forward, it is fair to ask: Will we have a mission, and what will it be?”

• increased public accountability
• changing knowledge environment
• changing technological environment
• changing financial and economic environments
• changing human resources environment

1. Developments in Microphotography
2. First Application of Computer Technologies in Libraries: The 1960s
3. Use of Online Information Retrieval Systems for Refernce: The 1970s
4. CD-ROMs and Integrated Library Systems: The 1980s
   1. The CD-ROM
5. Integrated Library Systems
   1. The Development of Online Public Access Catalogs (OPACs)
   2. The Linked System Project: Linked System Protocal (LSP)
   3. Online Circulation Systems
   4. Automated Acquisitions and Serials Systems
6. The Growth of the Internet and the World Wide Web: The 1990s
   1. Growth of the Internet
   2. The World Wide Web

1. The First Decade: 2000-2010
   1. Web 2.0 and Social Media
      1. Blogs
      2. Wikis
      3. Social Networks
   2. Really Simple Syndication (RSS) and Podcasting
   3. Internet2
   4. The Growth of Google
   5. Mass Digitalization and Google Books
   6. Preserving Digital Content
2. The Second Generation: 2010-
   1. The Pervasive Use of Technology and the Internet
      1. Broadband Access
      2. Mobile Devices
         1. Cell Phone
         2. Smartphones
         3. Tablets
      3. Social Media
3. Technological Innovations Transformating Library Functions
   1. The Evolving Collection
      1. Digital Libraries
      2. The Rise of Electronic Books (E-books)
      3. Electronic Resource Management Systems (ERMS)
      4. Demand Driven Acquisitions (DDA)
      5. Radio Frequence Identification (RFID)
   2. The Evolving Search Process
      1. Discovery Systems
      2. Virtual Reference Service (VRS)
      3. Social Question & Answering Serices (SQA)
4. The Library's Evolving Space
5. The Evolving Technological Infrastructure: Cloud-Based Computing

1. The Decline of the Classical English and Apprenticeship Models and the Rises of the Technical Education Model
2. The Influence of Andrew Carnegie

1. The Dewey Decimal Classification System
2. The American Library Assocation
3. American Library Journal
4. Library Education

1. Pratt Institute
2. Drexel
3. Armour Institute/University of Illinois
4. Continued Expansion of Schools

1. The Ebb and Flow of Library Schools
2. The Emergence of i-Schools

1. Two Paradigms
2. Finding Common Ground

1. Persistently Low Numbers of Minority Librarians
2. Gender Discrepancies
3. Generational Issues

1. The Trait Model
2. The Control Model
3. The Values Model

1. Stereotypes
2. Personality Types
3. Gender Perceptions

1. Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)

1. LCC

1. Classfification and Shelf Arrangement

• synonymy
• hierarchical relationships
• associative relationships
• homography

1. Thesauri
2. Subject Heading Lists

• the first edition of the published novel
• subsequent editions with changes
• translated editions of the first or subsequent editions of the novel
• a screenplay of the novel
• a motion picture

The PCC supports activities such as:

• developing, adopting, and adapting standards for resource discovery
• providing continuing education and training for metadata creators
• enabling the extension, iterative, enhancement, reuse, and open exchange of metadata
• facilitating the automated generation of metadata
• developing tools and templates for metadata creation
• leveraging emerging technologies, such as linked data
• encouraging work at the network level
• registering controlled vocabularies
• employing technology creatively
• collaborating with scientific and cultural heritage institutions, publishers, and vendors
• partnering with professional organizations in areas of mutual interest (PCC 2015)

1. Open Government Data (OGD)

1. Linked Open Data Initiative (LOD)

Facilitates discovery in at least four ways:

• allowing resources to be found by relevant criteria
• identifying resources
• distinguishing dissimilar resources
• giving location information (NISO 2004, p. 1)

NISO (2004) describes three main types of metadata:

1. Descriptive metadata describes a resource for purposes such as discovery and identification. It can include elements such as title, abstract, author, and keywords.
2. Structural metadata indicates how compound objects are put together, for example, how pages are ordered to form chapters.
3. Administrative metadata provides information to help manage a resource, such as when and how it was created, file type and other technical information, and who can access it. (p. 1)

…metadata should be able to perform the following functions (NISO 2004):

• describe what the resources are and what they are about, and organize them according to controlled criteria
• allow resources to be found by relevant criteria, aggregate similar resources, and provide pathways to the location of the desired information
• facilitate metadata exchange and enable interoperability
• provide digital identification and description for archiving and preserving resources

“Over the centuries, librarians systematically organized knowledge, primarily contained in books. Innovations such as the Dewey Decimal System greatly increased efficiency. However, with the proliferation of scientific and technical information in the twentieth century, often stored in media other than books, came considerable interest in the theoretical and practical aspects of how to organize nonprint information and improve access to the new media. From this need, a new field emerged. Developed first in Europe and known originally as “documentalism,” it focused on the creation, organization, and dissemination of information in all formats.”

Vannevar Bush's (1945) seminal article “As We Might Think,” MEMEX

“Given the broad-based needs of business, government, military and research demands for information properly organized and stored, the evolution of documentalists (pre-World War II) into information scientists (post-World War II) focusing on indexing and retrieving information was inevitable.”

Information Science (IS) has many definitions, but Taylor (1966, p.19) captured the essential elements:

“Information Science: The science that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces governing the flow of information, and the means of processing information for optimum accessibility and usability. The processes include the origination, dissemination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, and use of information. The field is derived from or related to mathematics, logic, linguistics, psychology, computer technology, operations research, the graphic arts, communications, library science management and some other fields.”

“Three features of this definition stand out: (1) a focus on the phenomenon of information regardless of format (e.g., a book, database, or website) or content (e.g., government, business, or personal), (2) attention to the entire information cycle from creation to use, and (3) recognition of the interdisciplinary nature of the field, drawing from scientific, social scientific, and psychological disciples as well as library science.”

“Also notable was what was not included in the definition: IS is not institution based. Information science comprises a library without walls; its collection is the entire world of information and the information scientist, a term attributed to Farradane in the early 1950s (Summers et al. 1999), was the agent who acquired, organized, and disseminated that information to help people meet their needs, whether practical, theoretical, religious, or aesthetic.”

“Indeed, IS has sometimes been characterized as deinstitutionalized library science.”

“Summers et al. (1999) identified three core concerns of information science: “storage (digital libraries); communication (information retrieval and intelligent agent interaction), and use (knowledge management) of information” (p. 1159).”

Bates “suggested that information science might be orthogonal to the conventional disciplines – that is, its concerns cut across them. Orthogonal disciplines focus on a particular social purpose and draw from the various traditional disciplines as needed. Bates identified these orthogonal professions as information disciplines (including information science and librarianship), communication/journalism, and education (see Figure 7.1)”

“In Bate's (2007) characterization, information science was more related to scientific disciplines while library science was associated more with the use and preservation of the cultural record, even though both fields share a concern for recorded information.”

“Bates (1999) identified three “Big Questions” addressed by information science:

1. The physical question: What are the features and laws of the recorded-information universe?
2. The social question: How do people related to, seek, and use information?
3. The design question: How can access to recorded information be made most rapid and effective? (p. 1048).”

1. Distinguishing between data, information, and knowledge
   1. Data “Data are the building blocks of information and knowledge. In this sense, data are numbers, letters, or symbols. Some data are more readily processed by a computer than others.The term often implies that meaning is as yet absent, or unassigned as in raw data.”

1. Information “Information has a very long etymological history. Early senses of the term suggested that information involved a “forming” or “moulding of the mind” (Oxford English Dictionary 1989, p. 944). In this early sense, the soul might be “informed.”

“The very form of the term, “the action of informing” or the “communication of the knowledge or 'news' of some fact or occurrence” (OED, p. 944) suggests both an active process and the object being communicated. It is the “knowledge communicated concerning some particular fact, subject, or event; that which one is apprised of or told; intelligence, news” (OED, p.944). LIS professionals both inform their users and provide them with information.”

“Bates (2006) identified eighteen types or forms of information, the most general of which was “the pattern of organization of matter and energy” (p. 1036).

“LIS professionals commonly see information as an aggregation, organization, or classification of data, and perhaps more importantly, as data that has been assigned meaning. This also seems to imply that some type of human understanding and processing as occurred.”

1. Knowledge (and Wisdom) “Knowledge is defined as a cohesive body of information or information that is integrated into a larger body of knowledge. Knowledge is applied or potentially applicable to some end.”

“From our perspective, one presumes that knowledge as well as information is gained through libraries – that users can gain an understanding of the interrelationship of the information obtained and its applicability to a particular setting. Such a view recognizes the potential of libraries and LIS professionals to help make connections whenever possible so that people can translate information into knowledge.”

“Wisdom can be appreciated as knowledge applied to human ends to benefit the world. In this sense, wisdom is imbued with values. One can apply knowledge to immoral ends, but there is a beneficial end to the application of wisdom.”

“The goal of LIS professionals as agents of an important social institution is to provide the data that becomes information that increases knowledge that results in wisdom to benefit society.”

“In sum, there appears to be a conceptual ladder: data are raw and unprocessed; information is processed data from which meaning arises and is communicated; and knowledge is further processed information that is organized and interrelate and more broadly understood and applied. Wisdom is knowledge applied to the benefit of humanity.”

“Wilson (1983) observed that most of the knowledge people acquire does not come from direct experience (firsthand knowledge), but from secondhand knowledge: “We mostly depend on others for ideas, as well as for information about things outside the range of direct experience…Much of what we think about the world is what have second hand from others” (p. 10).

“What leads us to infer that one item is more authoritative than another is referred to as cognitive authority. LIS professionals trust those sources they think have greater cognitive authority.”

“The fact is that the Web is redefining what people identify as authoritative.”

1. The Value of Information and Value-Added Processes

“Part of understanding the nature of information is appreciating its value. Over the centuries, attempts to determine its monetary value have increased. With the industrial society evolving into an information-based society, a new concept emerged – that information was a product, a commodity with its own value. Accepting this concept led to the assumption that those people, organizations, and countries that possessed the highest-quality information were more likely to prosper economically, socially and politically.”

“Information has become a recognized entity to be measured, evaluated, and priced.”

“The library creates this value because LIS professionals structure easy access to the requested information – all these are “value-added” functions.”

“Harter (1986) defined an information retrieval system as “a device interposed between a potential end-user of an information collection and the information collection itself. From a service perspective, the purpose of an information storage and retrieval system is to capture wanted items and filter out unwanted items from the information collection” (p.2).”

Relevance

“There are at least two aspects of relevance: relevance to the user and relevance to the topic. In the former, the user defines the context for relevance; an item is relevant if the user believes it helps meet the information need. In the latter case, an item is relevant if it is about the subject regardless of a given user (Pao 1989).

1. Precision, Recall, and Relevance

“By what criteria should information retrieval systems be evaluated?”

“Recall: Total number of relevant documents retrieved divided by the total number of relevant documents in the file.”

“Precision: Total number of relevant documents divided by the total number of documents retrieved.”

“Within any given system, it is critical to know if all the available items relevant to a particular search were found; the degree of success is a measure of recall. With poor recall, items that might have been useful were not located.”

“The degree to which a system finds only relevant items is a measure of precision.”

1. Searching Tools

“Since the development of electronic databases, the search strategy most often used in library settings was Boolean logic which combined search terms with various operators such as “and,” “or,”, or “not.” Multiple terms could be used simultaneously, permitting highly flexible search strategies, compared to manual searches.”

1. Database and File Structure

Davis and Shaw (2001) defiend a database as “a collection of data that is stored to facilitate addition, updates, deleting, and access (p. 101).”

“Stephens (2009) identified four basic functions that a database must satisfy using the mnemonic CRUD: create, read, update, and delete.”

“Four common types of database structures:”

Database structure determines:

1. the types of information
2. the nature of the vocabulary
3. identifies fields and subfields
4. directs what can be retrieved
5. can restrict the search by relevance

1. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

“HCI is the field within information science that specifically focuses on the point of contact between people and computers. HCI is 'a discipline concerned with the study, design, construction and implementation of human-centric interactive computer systems' (Webopedia 2014). The field is interdisciplinary and incorporates knowledge and research from computer science, sociology and anthropology, ergonomics, psychology, and linguistics.”

“HCI is a very broad discipline that encompasses different specialities with different concerns regarding computer development: computer science is concerned with the application design and engineering of the human interfaces; sociology and anthropology are concerned with the interactions between technology, work and organization and the way that human systems and technical systems mutually adapt to each other; ergonomics is concerned with the safety of computer systems and the safe limits of human cognition and sensation; psychology is concerned with the cognitive processes of humans and the behavior of users; linguistics is concerned with the development of human and machine languages and the relationships between the two. (Webopedia 2014)”

HCI activities today are shaped by many of the following developments (Hewitt et al. 2009):

• the widespread use of computers
• the heterogeneity of devices
• widespread access to the Internet
• growth of group activities
• demand for flexibility
• networked communications and “the cloud”
• the rise of effective natural language processing

Challenges for NLP:

• speech recognition
• command recognition
• content analysis and representation
• system interaction

“LIS professionals need to be conversant with HCI developments and participate in HCI research and applications whenever possible.”

1. Bibliometrics
2. Citation Analysis

1. Understanding Information Behavior: Information Needs and Information Seeking
   1. Information Needs
   2. Information Seeking
      1. There is a Difference between Information Seeking and Information Gathering
      2. Information Seeking Proceeds in Stages
      3. People Usually Search for Information in Some Context
      4. People Seek Information from People First
      5. Convenience Above All: The Principle of Least Effort
      6. Internet Searching Behavior
         1. Search Abilities Vary around Individuals
         2. Internet Searching by Children and Youth

1. Informatics
2. Big Data
3. User-Experince Design (UXD)
   1. Usability Testing
   2. Responsive Design
   3. UXD in Libraries

Rubin 407—> “Information policy is any law, regulation, rule, or practice (written or unwritten) that affects the creation, acquisition, organization, dissemination, or evaluation of information. Information policy can be discussed from the perspective of information technologies for educational and industrial use, telecommunications, privacy issues, computer regulations and crimes, copyright and intellectual property, and government information systems (Burger 1993). [Burger, Robert H. 1993. Information policy: A framework for evaluation and policy research. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.]

Rubin 408–> “Under capitalism, information can be viewed as a form of private property that provides a competitive edge. Insofar as it can be held privately, there is a strong incentive for individuals to discover information and use it to create new products and services. On the other hand, the democratic values of American society promote the free flow of information and access to it both as a right and as essential to a free society”

Rubin 409—>“The federal government controls how that information is disseminated by promulgating regulations that specify what information is restricted, such as information affecting national security, or released to the public (or the press) and what information must be publically available.”

Rubin 409–> “Stakeholders in information policy also include members of the telecommunications industry, including the telephone, television, cable, and radio industry; producers of DVDs; publishers of both print and electronic information; Internet content providers, database producers and vendors; and technology giants such as Microsoft and Google. … This sector also includes libraries. Libraries have a special role and exercise a special interest because they are among the few stakeholders in this group whose motivations are not profit oriented.”

Rubin 409-10–>“Every citizen in a democratic society is a major stakeholder in laws and policies dealing with information. The way information flows in a society directly affects each person's ability to make informed decisions. The subtlest shift in policy can affect the extent to which the public receives accurate, up-to-date, and sufficient information, as well as who received this information.”

Rubin 410–> “Individual citizens, however, seldom have the ability to influence these policies. Consequently, a variety of organizations try to represent the public's interests…”

• taxpayer resistance
• declining confidence in public institutions
• political ideologies that favor private enterprise over public good
• lack of effective advocacy on the part of libraries

Rubin 412–>“Judith Krug, the late Executive Director of the Offie of Intellectual Freedom of the American Library Association, in the forward to Privacy in the 21st Century, described the issues facing LIS professionals: Privacy is the issue of the moment in librarianship, brought forward by relentless changes in technology, law, and social attitudes. Whether it is the question of adopting Radio Frequency Identification Devices (RFIDs) to track book inventory, devising policy to deal with law enforcement inquiries under the USA PATRIOT Act, or addressing a library user's concerns about the use of her personal information, each day finds librarians confronting new questions and new challenges concerning privacy and confidentiality. (2005 p. ix) [Krug, J. 2005. Forward. In privacy in the 21st century. By Adams, H. R., Bocher, R. F., Gordon, C. A., and Barry-Kessler, E. (Eds.). Westport, CT: Libraries Unlimited, ix-x.]

• Right to Financial Privacy Act of 1978
• Electronic Communications Privacy Act of 1986
• Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act of 1994
• Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA)
• Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA)
• US PATRIOT ACT

Rubin 415–>“The most prominent of these acts is the federal Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 1966, which applies to 'all records held by all executive branch agencies, creates a presumption in favor of release, permits only defined reasons for withholding information, and authorizes a requester to invoke judicial review' (Strickland 2005, p. 548) **[Strickland, L. S. 2005. The information gulag: Rethinking openness in times of national danger. Government Information Quarterly 22: 546-572.]

1. Transparency
2. No blocking
3. No unreasonable discrimination

• Broadband Data Improvement Act of 2008
• National Broadband Plan (FCC 2010)
• CAF (Connect America Fund)

“As the Information Policy and Access Center (2014) has observed: Public libraries provide an essential link between government and people. As government information, services, and resources move online, public libraries serve as critical community gateways to electronic government.The E-government roles public libraries play are particularly important for those who do not have high-speed Internet, or computer access in the home; lack of technology skills that E-government websites require; or have difficulty understand and using E-government services”

• GPOAcess
• E-Government Act of 2002

• literary works
• musical works, including any accompanying words
• dramatic works, including any accompanying music
• pantomimes and choreographic works
• pictorial, graphic, and sculptural works
• motion pictures and other audiovisual works
• sound recordings
• architectural works (U.S.C. 1988, 1993)

Rubin 441–> “It is a fundamental doctrine protecting the dissemination of ideas. ARL (2012) notes, Fair use is a user's right. In fact, the Supreme Court has pointed out that it is fair use that keeps copyright from violating the First Amendment; without fair use and related exceptions, copyright would create an unconstitutional constraint on free expression. (p. 6)

• taking individuals to court
• taking file sharing services to court
• threatening law suits against universities
• providing public education

• attribution
• attribution:NoDerivs
• attribution:ShareAlike
• attribution:Non-Commercial
• attribution:Non-Commercial-ShareAlike
• attribution:Non-Commercial-NoDerivs

1. unlocking literary works to permit “read aloud” functions for individuals who are blind or otherwise disabled
2. engaging computer programs that enable wireless telephone handsets to execute lawful software for the sole purpose of enabling interoperability or moving to a different wireless network (but only for a brief period after purchase of the phone)
3. disabling the content scrambling system of a motion picture or DVD so that a short portion might be used for the purpose of criticism or comment if the use if noncommercial or documentary files, or for educational purposes. The educational purposes exclusion includes educators K-12, and college and university faculty and students (LOC 2012)

• active participation in developing copyright policies
• locating and preparing electronic materials for dissemination
• locating alternative materials when copyright restrictions prohibit some materials
• assisting others in the interpretation of fair use in the digital environment
• monitoring enforcement and interpretation of the TEACH Act

• reinforces open scientific inquiry
• encourages diversity of analysis and opinion
• promotes new research
• makes possible the testing of new or alternative hypotheses and methods of analysis
• supports studies on data collection methods and measurement
• facilities the education of new researchers
• enables the exploration of topics not envisioned by the initial investigators
• permits the creation of new data sets when data from multiple sources are combined (OECD 2007, p. 10)

• they must include on computers that are available for use by minors technology protection measures that block or filter internet access to pictures that are: (a) obscene, (b) child pornography, or © harmful to minors.
• schools and libraries must certify that they educate minors about appropriate online behavior, including cyber bullying awareness, and response, and using social networking sites and chat rooms
• schools were also required to adopt and enforce a policy to monitor online activities of minors
• schools and libraries could not receive the discounts offered by the E-Rate program unless they certified that they had an internet safety policy

NCIPA

• access by minors to inappropriate matter on the internet and web
• the safety and security of minors when using email, chat rooms, and other forms of direct electronic communications (including instant messaging)
• unauthorized access, including so-called hacking and other unlawful activities by minors online
• unauthorized disclosure, use, and dissemination of personal identification information regarding minors
• measures designed to restrict minors' access to materials harmful to minors (not just visual depictions) (E-Rate Central, 2009)

• improved teacher quality through grants for professional development coupled with increased accountability for evaluation of teachers
• promoting international education
• improving financial aid and student assistance processes
• monitoring tuition costs and the total costs of higher education

• increasingly chooses digital over print and paper
• offers multiple access points other than those traditional search tools offered by libraries
• follows user preferences rather than traditional library bibliographic control technologies
• creates new knowledge management tools that enable users direct and independent access to content
• fosters non-librarian organizations (that are often competitive with libraries) to create access points and dissemination mechanisms for government information; and
• pushes users expectations to expect immediate access to information beyond the confines of a library's physical collection housed within a particular building (p. 474)

• the public has a right of access to public information
• the Federal Government should guarantee the integrity and preservation of public information, regardless of format
• the Federal Government should guarantee the dissemination, reproduction, and redistribution of public information
• the Federal Government should safeguard the privacy of persons who use or request information, as well as persons about whom information exists in government records
• the Federal Government should ensure a wide diversity of sources of access, private as well as governmental, to public information
• the Federal Government should not allow costs to obstruct the people's access to public information
• the Federal Government should ensure that information about government information is easily available and in a single index accessible in a variety of formats
• the Federal Government should guarantee the public's access to public information, regardless of where they live and work, through national networks and programs like the Depository Library Program (NCLIS 2008, p. 21)

• to consolidate federal library service programs
• to stimulate excellence and promote access to learning and information resources in all types of libraries for individuals of all ages
• to promote library services that provide all users access to information through state, regional, national and international electronic networks
• to provide linkages among and between libraries
• to promote targeted library services to people of diverse geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic backgrounds, to individuals with disabilities, and to people with limited functional literacy or information skills

1. IMLS places the learner at the center and supports engaging experiences in libraries and museums that prepare people to be full participants in their local communities and our global society
2. IMLS promotes museums and libraries as strong community anchors that enhance civic engagement, cultural opportunities, and economic vitality
3. IMLS supports exemplary stewardship of museum and library collections and promotes the use of technology to facilitate dis